Introduction

As the development paradigm becomes more technology-centric, success in the global economy will depend on access to information and communication technologies (ICTs)(Adeya and Cogburn 2001). Despite the reduction of time and space constraints, unequal access to new technology and knowledge development resources has exacerbated themarginalization of certain segments of the world community. Oppressed by centuries-oldinstitutional norms, excluded from the public sphere because of cultural beliefs, and polarized by unequal power arrangements, these subordinate groups continue to be pushed to the margins as the process of globalization sweeps the world.

Women in developing countries represent the largest subordinated segment of the global digital and knowledge divides, despite the focus on gender parity in developmentinitiatives since the 1970s. Realizing the important role that women play in sustainable development, international organizations and community groups alike are increasinglyincorporating new technologies into the design of initiatives that extend the network to disadvantaged areas. However, in many technology-driven development projects inadequate attention has been paid to the gender dimension during the design and implementation stages, thus creating greater economic, social and political inequalities.

To date, technology-driven development projects have largely been viewed as gender neutral. This simplistic, generalized approach to development has often led to increased disparities relating to access to and usage of ICTs between men and women. While there is a complex array of factors that must be considered when designing and deploying new technologies in historically disadvantaged areas, the lack of focus on gender dynamics hasgiven rise to the emergence of a gender divide in many developing countries seeking to transition into the information age.

To mitigate this emerging divide between the sexes, it is imperative that the gender dimension be more closely incorporated into the design ICT-centric development initiatives. From online portals that allow women to report human rights abuses (e.g. sexual harassmentand domestic abuse) directly to government officials in India to broadcasts for wind up radios relating to subsistence farming in Mozambique, ICT deployments in rural contexts throughout the developing world have proved to be an essential component to women's socio-economicand cultural advancement.

While there is a wide array of innovative, gender-sensitive ICT-centric projects takingplace throughout the developing world, women continue to represent an inordinately large portion of disadvantaged groups. Largely because of the absence of gender-sensitive policies and design rules, many women are still unable to harness new technologies to redefine their roles in the increasingly interconnected world community. Access to ICTs is a prerequisite for new knowledge creation, and until the gender dimension is incorporated into their design, women in the developing world will continue to be marginalized, resulting, inter alia, in the loss of knowledge about local social systems.

The effect that technology-centric development programs have on women depends on how they are designed and diffused. Given the cultural, institutional and contextual factors that must be incorporated into ICT implementations, the question arises: has a greater focus on the gender dimension in technology-centric development projects increased accessibility to innovations for women? More specifically, have gender specific changes in the design and implementation of telecenters in Africa improved women's ability to use new technologies?

In this thesis I will explore the complex relationship between the diffusion of ICTs,telecenter design and women's access to new technologies in African contexts. The argumentformulated herein is based on the contention that sustainability of ICTs in Africa is dependentupon moving away from a gender-neutral approach to telecenter design and towards a moreengendered one that is tailored to the diverse needs of women (and men) users. In thetheoretical context of Everett Rogers' (1995) diffusion model, this thesis outlines how innovative ways of thinking about gender can have positive impacts on the diffusion of newtechnologies in historically disadvantaged societies.

Additionally, this thesis will draw upon the seminal works conducted by Nancy Hafkin et al. (2001), inter alia, and a variety of research conducted by internationalorganizations, such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the United Nations (UN), and the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), to demonstrate that increased technology diffusion, which is based on demand, depends on incorporating thegender dimension into the design and implementation of telecenters. Increased attention to the dynamics of gender has the potential to significantly impact the way in which new technologies are perceived and inevitably diffused.

To demonstrate the importance of gender in technology-driven development, the thesis is organized as follows. Chapter two offers a theoretical model within which ICTs can be leveraged to achieve development goals in disadvantaged areas. In the context of Rogers'(1995) diffusion model, the chapter outlines how embedded social norms, cultural representations and technology diffusion interact to facilitate change at a grassroots level. The conceptual framework developed in this chapter provides a foundation for better understanding the way in which ICTs can be used as catalysts for ideological andtechnological innovations.

Chapter three explores the role that a more engendered approach can play inincreasing women's accessibility of ICTs. By focusing on the telecenter model, this chapterwill highlight the potentially beneficial effects that increased access to ICTs can have onimproving women's lives. In the context of key social segments, such as education andhealthcare, it demonstrates the importance of engendered telecenters to help women realize thesocio-economic advantages of the information age.

From Mali to Mozambique, chapter four looks at the current state of telecenterdeployments throughout the continent. Specifically, the chapter offers insights into country-specific telecenter projects, focusing on the effect they have had on female users specifically,and communities in general. Based on available empirical evidence and first hand interviews,the chapter highlights the relationship between women's accessibility to telecenters and theincorporation of the gender dimension into design and implementation processes.

Chapter five will examine the role that gender plays in diffusing new technologies in avariety of African countries. Specifically, this chapter explores how existing Africanenvironments are limiting the diffusion of engendered telecenters. The chapter offers insightsinto some of the key issues impeding women's access to telecenters, while also offering somepotential strategies for improving the situation. Given that gender is a crucial element fordiffusing new technologies in underserved areas, this chapter highlights some of the keychanges that must be made to ensure that women's needs are incorporated into the design oftelecenters.

Finally, chapter six provides an overview of some of the core components for making telecenters more gender aware, thereby improving women's accessibility to telecenters in Africa. The paper concludes by arguing that only by acknowledging, appreciating and incorporating gender differences into the design and implementation of telecenters specifically, and ICTs generally, can Africa join the ever-growing, globally connected information society.

Communication, Culture & Technology, Georgetown University [2]