School of Media and Public Affairs, George Washington University

In this 19-page paper on the media in Latin America, Silvio Waisbord writes about the legacy of weak media pluralism; media pluralism as a forgotten priority; the tensions of watchdog journalism; the press as agenda-setter and gate-keeper; and obstacles and options for courses of action to strengthen the quality of press reporting. The document is part of the publication of papers for a conference on “The Role of the News Media in the Governance Reform Agenda", which was co-sponsored by the World Bank Communication for Governance and Accountability Program (CommGAP) and the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Boston, United States (US).

From the Introduction: "My argument is that despite recent advances in democratic expression, media pluralism remains weak in Latin American democracies. The succession of civilian administrations in the past twenty-five years has ushered in better conditions for the press and public expression.  Only sporadically, however, the press offers a wide set of perspectives on issues of public interest, and scrutinizes official secrecy and wrongdoing. The persistent weakness of media diversity coupled with the primacy of official news undercut potential opportunities for the press to make a stronger contribution to democratic expression."

Waisbord reviews the proximity of the press and party politics, including the founding of major newspapers during oligarchical regimes. He states that the commercial aspects of press organisation do not separate it from the influence of government officials: "So, the problem was not state ownership of the press, but rather, the excessive power of governments and private interests." The broadcast industry was developed under the same conditions, plagued by what he calls "state capture and market capture"; and conditions under current democratic governments for the most part follow this legacy - with favouritism apparent in tax breaks, advertising, loans, and bribes, according to the document. In addition, governments have used legislation to advance short-term political goals and business interests, while they have been reluctant to support legal changes to facilitate media diversity and public scrutiny. When populist administrations take power, there are often tensions with the established media. Further, the condition of "statelessness" or control by extra-legal actors (paramilitary, parapolice, and drug traffickers) who wrest control from the state in certain regions prevents protection and support of journalist watchdogging. "The combination of quid pro quo practices between the state and media corporations, the persistent lack of media pluralism, and “statelessness” undermine the prospects for a democratic press in Latin America."

Structural and news organisation constraints narrow the potential of watchdog journalism due to "the linkages between news organizations with markets and governments, newsroom routines, and professional criteria determining news. Structural dynamics and professional biases also constrain the agenda-setting and gatekeeping roles of the press." Civil society, on the other hand, has advanced civic expression in the public sphere, but "[t]he press, however, has failed to tap into civic society in ways that it could better serve a diversity of public interests."

The document gives options to enhance the quality of press performance in order to promote media pluralism, increase accountability of government decisions affecting the press, and strengthen coverage of civic issues and opinions. According to the author, "[t]he goal should be to reinforce the connective tissues between the press and the public sphere." However, "[a]lthough global movements for civic expression and technology-based forms of citizens’ journalism (e.g. blogs, cell phones and SMS, electronic social networks) provide new opportunities for civic expression, it would be mistaken to automatically consider them the bellwether of press democracy." The author recommends a combination of interventions to transform media structures, government accountability, and journalistic practices:

*Diversifying of media ownership and actions for media reform:
    1. Support advocacy among key actors (government, business, civic society) to spearhead changes in legislation to reduce the influence of large corporations in press systems;
    2.  Raise the visibility of media pluralism and discuss alternatives for media reform with governments;
    3.  Strengthen “small” print, broadcasting, and web-based media that are not affiliated with governments or corporations, particularly attending to their financial sustainability and independence. "Multilateral and bilateral donors can support programs that offer economic incentives (e.g. microloans, grants, subsidies) and opportunities for strengthening media management competencies," particularly ensuring transparency and civic participation.

*Reducing discretionary control of the “Executive” on decisions that affect press performance:

    1. "More transparency and public participation in the use of public resources may help to redress centralized power and media patronage";

    2.  "Some areas of intervention include management of official advertising, structure and control of public broadcasting, and decisionmaking around issues such as taxation, importation permits, and newsprint production";
    3.  Shift the mindset so that government information is seen as a public resource, pass access to information laws, and revoke punitive laws against journalists.    

*Intervening in journalistic practice:
    1.  Work with news organisations and journalistic associations on training to institutionalise civic voices in the press... "capacity strengthening is not about simply transmitting and acquiring skills. It is about reinforcing democratic institutions and distributive competencies across the public sphere to promote the use of journalistic competencies that favor civic perspectives."
    2.  Facilitate communication between journalists and civic groups. "Linking them to newsrooms may help to raise the visibility of civic interests, and address newsroom obstacles to produce quality, in-depth reporting. Simultaneously, it is important to strengthen the capacity of civic organizations to produce and distribute news through their own media and mainstream newsrooms."

The document concludes with: "Bringing the press closer to the public sphere will contribute to transferring a wide spectrum of civic demands into the policy-making arena. Latin American societies have an impressive stock of public initiatives and democratic practices that are insufficiently presented and represented in the press. For the press to enhance democratic governance, it should tap into those experiences and widen opportunities for deliberation and criticism."

Pippa Norris's website on the Roles in Media Conference, accessed on November 12 2008.